Introduction
Since their first conceptualization, stereotypes demonstrated to be key determinants of social cognition, thus representing the semantic associations and evaluation people hold on social groups. Central to their understanding, is the key concept of “automatic” activation of stereotypes, reflecting an inherent resistance to change and an invariance across contexts. This automaticity, defined as the rapid, parallel, and largely uncontrollable nature of these processes, contrasts with the slower, conscious and effortful nature of controlled processing (Kahneman, 2013). Yet, data from several studies suggest that motivated individuals can modify these processes within different situation. For instance, it has been shown that individual with threatened self-images may activate negative stereotypes to strengthen their self-esteem, or to discredit evaluators they dislike, whilst the opposite can happen if it benefits their self-image (Sinclair & Kunda, 1999; Spencer et al., 1998; Spencer et al., 2016). Stereotypes are driven by several motives, such as the needs for belonging, understanding, self-enhancing, trusting and controlling. Hence, automatic attitudes are not as rigid as formerly thought and can be quite responsive to the perceiver’s situational motives.
Stereotypes function as expectations and shape information processing: easily processing stereotype-consistent information and inhibiting inconsistent information through the directing of attention (Hamilton et al., 1990; Sherman et al., 2005). A much-debated question is whether attention plays a crucial role in the activation and inhibition of stereotypes: when perceivers are unable or unwilling to pay attention to a target, stereotyping becomes more likely, leading to biased judgment and behaviours. However, it also suggested that a lack of attention can reduce automatic stereotypes, thereby decreasing the likelihood of stereotypic judgments (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990; Fiske & Taylor, 2021; Gilbert et al., 1998).
Existing research recognizes the critical role played by the diverse strategies (e.g., suppressing stereotypes, expecting counter-stereotypic events) in significantly affecting the automatic activation of stereotypes, and their capability in leading to longer-term changes (Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001; Kawakami et al., 2000). Counter-stereotypes can produce systematic responses even in the presence of high cognitive constraints that compete with automatically activated stereotypes (Blair & Banaji, 1996; Gilbert & Hixon, 1991; Macrae et al., 1997; Metcalfe, 1998). It has been argued that the conscious and intentional creation of mental representation (i.e., mental imagery) can influence cognitive, emotional and behavioural responses (Dadds et al., 1997; Kosslyn, 2005; Taylor & Schneider, 1989). Mental imagery has been effective in altering judgments and behaviours across various domains, suggesting its potential for modifying implicit stereotypes. Implicit and explicit attitudes are often associated, due to shared roots in personal and cultural experiences. However, the automatic activation of stereotypes can occur independently of personal beliefs, leading to potential conflicts between implicit responses and consciously held egalitarian views (Devine, 1989).
Understanding the dynamics of stereotypes requires an integrated approach that considers both cognitive processes and cultural influences. This literature review will explore the mechanisms by which automatic stereotypes might be modified, emphasizing the roles of decision-making, emotion regulation, motivation, and cultural context, considering Clark (2012); Clark (2013); Clark (2018) and Hinton (2017) contributes through the “predictive brain” and the “culture in mind” perspectives.
“Predictive brain” and “culture in mind” perspectives
In the study of the cognitive aspects related to the processes of constructing and maintaining implicit stereotypes, two significant perspectives can contribute to the understanding of how the mind operates and processes information within cultural contexts: the “Predictive Brain” framework proposed by Clark (2013) and the “Culture in Mind” concept, discussed by Hinton (2017). These two approaches offer valuable insights and perspectives into the functioning of stereotypes by emphasizing their cognitive rather than social aspects and help understand how stereotypes are formed, maintained and potentially changed within individuals and across societies.
According to the “Predictive Brain” (Clark, 2012; Clark, 2013), human brain is constantly making predictions about the world, through Bayesian principles, based on prior experiences and learned associations. This model suggests that brain functions as a probabilistic machine, continually updating beliefs and expectations to minimize errors in perception and decision-making. Hence, brain bases its prediction on the likelihood of events occurring as observed in the real world, not necessarily on what is socially desirable or morally correct. This modular view of the brain and cognitive functions emphasizes the role of inference in perception, suggesting that what we perceive is strongly influenced by our prior beliefs and expectations. From this perspective, it can be explained how preconceived notions about social groups can influence perception and behaviour: stereotypes, as predictive models, lead to expectations and interpretations about certain groups that can perpetuate discriminatory behaviour. Since the brain’s predictive mechanism operates largely outside of awareness, these cognitive biases are not always conscious. Therefore, even when individuals consciously reject certain stereotypes, these may persist at an implicit level, since the brain continues to rely on those learned associations that have proven to be statistically common in their social context. Considering this perspective, implicit stereotypes cannot be considered just cognitive biases or errors in judgment, but, rather, they are the natural outcome of the brain’s effort to predict social interactions based on the most common and consistent information in encounters. Therefore, stereotypes form because the brain unconsciously identifies patterns from the social world and interprets these patterns as reliable predictors of behaviour o traits associated to a certain group. This learning process is often unconscious and driven by the brain’s need to make sense of the social environment efficiently.
The “Culture in mind” framework (Hinton, 2017), emphasizes the role that culture has in shaping cognitive processes, including the development and perpetuation of stereotypes. Culture acts as a source of shared knowledge and common understandings that influence how individuals think, feel and behave. In this view, implicit stereotypes should be understood as manifestation of broader cultural patterns and norms that are internalized by members of a cultural group. This concept suggests that stereotypes are culturally constructed and maintained through communication, socialization, and media, embedded in the narratives, symbols and practices of a society and transmitted through generations as part of the cultural knowledge that individuals acquire. Therefore, implicit stereotypes are constantly being reshaped by changes in cultural norms, media representations and social interaction, as they are the cultural product of values, beliefs and power dynamics of the society in which they arise. Hence, it is not possible to change implicit stereotypes without addressing the cultural context that sustains them.
The notion of “culture in mind” suggests that cultural factors are deeply embedded in cognitive processes. Through an enactivist perspective, Hinton argues that there is an interpenetration between culture and cognition that makes them inseparably intertwined (Hipolito & Kirchhoff, 2019; Hutto et al., 2020; Safron et al., 2022). To look at stereotypes from this perspective is to recognize the cultural narratives and social norms that form and shape the cognitive schemas that individuals use to interpret the world. Stereotypes thus become cultural constructions of mental representations that are perpetuated through social interactions and the media. The prevalence of stereotypes can be traced back to historical and cultural narratives that have been reinforced over time and understanding this cultural permeation means recognizing that stereotypes are not just individual cognitive errors, but part of a broader cultural phenomenon. This recognition is fundamental to addressing the systemic nature of stereotypes and their impact on social equality.
When considering these two perspectives together, it becomes evident that stereotypes are the product of both cultural influences and predictive cognitive processes. Taken together, these theories demonstrate how difficult it is to deal with stereotypes because it requires altering social constructs as well as internal mental mechanisms. However, combining “Predictive Brain” and “Culture in Mind” frameworks may offer a more comprehensive understanding of how stereotype function: on one hand we find the cognitive mechanisms by which stereotypes are learned and maintained at an unconscious level, on the other hand, we remember to emphasize the role of cultural and social factors in shaping these cognitive processes. Culture is not monolithic or fixed, but rather a dynamic interaction between individuals and their cultural context. People actively construct their social world and media environment, which means that implicit stereotypes are constantly being updated to reflect both stable cultural patterns and evolving social norms. This perspective highlights the importance of consistent exposure to counter-stereotypical information in undermining negative implicit stereotypes.
The role of decision-making in stereotypes
Social psychology extensively studied stereotypes as simplified generalizations about groups. One of the most well-known tools for assessing implicit stereotypical associations is the Implicit Associations Test (IAT); this instrument has demonstrated that implicit stereotypical associations can influence social judgment even among those who consciously aim to avoid such biases, raising significant questions about both the control over and the individual’s responsibility for implicit stereotype effects that they consciously reject. The concept of implicit stereotypical association is underpinned by two theoretical constructs: associative networks in semantic memory and automatic activation. Kahneman’s (2013) dual-system theory assumes that conscious processing is slow, effortful, and requires attentional resources and motivation, while the automatic processing is rapid, operates outside of conscious awareness and involves parallel processing. Stereotypical associations, which are learned from culture and socialization, are automatically activated upon encountering a member of the stereotyped group, thus activating the automatic processing which can influence the perceivers’ thoughts and behaviour, often bypassing conscious intentions to inhibit prejudicial responses. This mechanism is facilitated by the implementation of heuristics, simple decision-making principles based on recognition or familiarity. Several studies demonstrated the efficacy of heuristics across various fields, such as economics, emergency medicine and consumer (Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2011) behaviour; working by exploiting prior probabilities and, consequently, reducing the cognitive load required for each new decision. This concept has been extended to social perception by Clark (2013) arguing that the “Predictive Brain” employs similar mechanisms in processing social information. This framework has been further applied by Otten and colleagues (2017) to social knowledge, suggesting that perception, including social perception, involves the application of learned probabilities to new experiences.
Despite the widespread use of the IAT and the focus on implicit stereotypes as a dominant framework in contemporary psychology (Fiske & Taylor, 2021), the predictive validity of this instrument in revealing unconscious biases has been challenged (Oswald et al., 2013). In fact, stereotypes, rather than indicating unconscious cognitive biases, seems to reflect associations learned from cultural information. These association, according to the predictive brain model, are probabilistically detected and a product of the normal brain functioning in life. Hence, implicit stereotypes evolve as cultural norms evolve, though at a slow pace for some associations. The predictive brain model emphasizes the need to integrate cognitive research with cultural dynamics to truly and fully understand the nature of implicit stereotypes.
According to Devine (1989), since stereotypes are culturally shared, they can be automatically triggered; therefore, those with positive attitudes toward a social group may also trigger negative stereotypes if they encounter a member of that group. This is also supported by the evidence that implicit attitudes, as a possible result of internalized explicit attitudes (Brauer et al., 2000), are influenced by individual and cultural experiences (Dovidio et al., 1997). Decision-making processes then become implicit, triggered by the strongest learned implicit stereotypical associations. Research on cognitive neuroscience supports the existence of early control mechanisms that may operate without conscious awareness (Berns et al., 1997; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2001). Two neural systems are involved and work in concert to produce intended behaviour despite the conflicting tendencies: a conflict-detection system, associated with the anterior cingulate cortex, and a regulatory system for response regulation, linked to the prefrontal cortex (Botvinick et al., 2001; Gehring & Fencsik, 2001; MacDonald et al., 2000).
The role of emotion regulation in stereotypes
Among the most interesting and least studied cognitive aspects in the formation and expression of stereotypes is the role of emotional regulation, i.e. the process of individual perception, modification and experience of emotions. Emotions, as primary variables, can play an important role in controlling the expression of implicit stereotypes. However, most research to date has focused on the effects stereotypes have on mood states. Several studies focused on how emotional regulation strategies change the effects of stereotypes on stigmatised groups. Rumination appears to be a significant mediator between stigma-related stress and psychological distress that increases as rumination increases, indicating a causal role (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2009). It would also appear that emotional suppression might be a strategy that leads to more positive emotions being experienced in people with high levels of prejudice than the non-use of emotional regulation strategies and leads to an increased desire for intergroup contact, whereas this is not the case in people with low levels of prejudice (Burns et al., 2008).
Why then focus on the role of emotional regulation? Cognitive performance - including decision-making, motivation and thinking, which regulate the implicit application of stereotypes - is influenced by the levels of arousal experienced (Johns et al., 2008). According to studies (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2009; Johns et al., 2008), optimal cognitive performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal, whereas high emotional arousal may enhance as much as impair the cognitive processes underlying implicit stereotype use. Current research suggests that while emotions may reinforce the cognitive persistence of stereotypes, the use of emotion regulation strategies may have the potential to moderate or even counteract this influence.
It becomes crucial to examine, again, the effect of culture on cognitive processes. Emotional regulation varies depending on the culture of reference and, in this sense, may influence the prevalence and expression of stereotypes, especially when modulated by specific emotional responses.
The role of motivation in stereotypes
Implicit stereotypes allow the categorisation of the social world around us into groups oriented by individual attitudes and beliefs (Allidina & Cunningham, 2023). Categorisation is a process influenced by different needs, such as the needs for sharing and belonging, which can direct attention to specific dimensions and categories. Motivation is the cognitive process that seeks to respond to individual needs and understanding its role in the early stages of social categorisation allows us to highlight how and when stereotypes begin to form. Motivational processes can shift the attention of individuals to specific dimensions of social categories, such as ethnicity, gender, age. For example, when individuals are motivated by the need to obtain benefits, they try to avoid those social groups perceived as threats to their resources or interests (Allidina et al., 2024; Allidina & Cunningham, 2023). Motivation varies among individuals and influences how information is processed. The application of cognitive shortcuts as stereotypes is, therefore, an active process, also influenced by motivational factors, e.g. through the selection of stereotypes that support one’s initial attitudes and the inhibition of stereotypes that interfere with that impression. Since motivation can influence the cognitive processing of individuals, leading to biases and distortions in their perceptions of social categories (Kunda, 1990), it is crucial to emphasise the ways in which this influence occurs at the attentional level.
Motivation also plays a central role in responding to the needs of belonging, especially when put in relation to Turner and colleagues’ (1979) social identity theory. Belonging to a group leads individuals to experience higher self-esteem and motivates them to maintain or improve the group’s status and prestige. To achieve this, they will use outgroup and ingroup differentiation strategies, facilitating the creation and use of stereotypes. Consequently, motivation also influences how individuals interact with the ingroup and outgroup. Keeping one’s group status high can lead to the enactment of behaviours that perpetuate intergroup differences and inequalities (Corenblum & Stephan, 2001; Goodwin et al., 1998).
Although motivation plays a significant role in stereotype formation, the analysis presented so far shows that it is also affected by other variables, such as cultural and social norms and cognitive biases; therefore, motivation as a cognitive process underlying stereotype formation and maintenance cannot be separated from an understanding of the influence of culture.
Influence of culture
The pervasive impact of culture on stereotypes is a crucial aspect that has been consistently overshadowed by the prevailing focus on cognitive biases within individuals. Stereotypes, however, are shaped by the social environments in which individuals live, and conversely, shape the cultural contexts in which they are embedded. Stereotypes, in fact, are more malleable than early theories suggested (Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Devine, 1989; Fazio et al., 1995) and respond to the current inputs, including thoughts and social context, of the perceiver, not limited to simple, well-learned associations. Following this perspective, stereotypes are forms of cultural knowledge, beliefs and shared assumptions - which individuals acquire through experiences in a specific cultural context. In his pioneer studies on stereotypes and prejudices, Allport (1985) already observed that these “manifestly come from somewhere”. The same concept was also explained by Lippmann (1957), who argued that it is culture, not the individual, that creates stereotypes, highlighting their cultural origins (Hinton, 2017).
It is interesting to consider which stereotypical associations are, at the cultural level, most frequently explored and, more broadly, most remembered. Associations made about an artist, a professor, an engineer may be seen as prejudices, but there is little psychological research that challenges them. This is mainly because research on stereotypes focuses on their socio-cultural and political implications. Therefore, we find a lot of research on stereotypes and specific topics such as gender, ethnicity, age, sexuality and disability. Implicit evaluations, which are manifested through behaviour in everyday life, reflect the deep-rooted cultural structures. For instance, in Western culture, there are expectations of belonging to social classes based on ethnicity and gender (Bjornsdottir et al., 2024). Furthermore, the image of migrant and refugee populations is often associated with low-skilled people from non-Western countries (Olier & Spadavecchia, 2022), largely because skilled migrants are underrepresented in Western media. Stereotypical representations of ethnicity and gender arise from narratives that have been perpetuated, varying and evolving over time, by social systems of inequality; fortunately, culture is something that can actively change through the construction of the social world and the media environment (Burr, 2015) and in this sense, conscious beliefs and values can contradict implicit biases. The “Predictive Brain” model helps explain why stereotypes persist even when consciously rejected. To predict social interactions, the brain relies on the most accessible information, which is often stereotypes; therefore, even if individuals have egalitarian beliefs, prevailing stereotypes can affect their implicit judgments (Fiske & Taylor, 2021). Stereotypes are also affected by culture in their communication. Previous research has shown that information consistent with stereotypes tends to be emphasized and transmitted, while information inconsistent with stereotypes, despite capturing attention, is less likely to be transmitted. This process causes stories to become more stereotypical and culturally consistent with each repetition, reinforcing the stereotype within the social group (Stangor & Crandall, 2013; Yeung & Kashima, 2010).
As already anticipated, however, the process of influence between stereotypes and culture is reciprocal. When the stereotype is established within a culture, certain behaviours and attitudes can be perpetuated among the members of different groups. An interesting example comes from the analysis of Qu (2023) who highlighted how the stereotype of the rebellious and irresponsible adolescent present in Western cultures can influence the expectations and behaviour of adults towards adolescents, which influences the development and behaviour of adolescents, reinforcing the pre-existing stereotype. Again, taking up the work of Olier and Spadavecchia (2022), the culture that sees Western whites moving abroad as “global citizens”, qualified people or professionals, as “expats” while “non-white” people, regardless of their qualifications or professions, are identified as “immigrants”, leading to different legal and social treatment (Kunz, 2016; Leinonen, 2012). Not only the historical roots of discrimination, then, but also the media play a fundamental role in modifying and reflecting cultural norms and stereotypes. From the differences between “immigrants” and “expats”, but also in the cultural influences given by dressing or hair that are “stylish” if worn by white people but “unprofessional” by BIPOC (Black, Indigenous and People of Colour) (Allidina et al., 2024).
Conclusion and future perspectives
Considering the variables examined so far and pointing out that they are only a part of human functioning and the complex relationships that can contribute to the creation and maintenance of stereotypes, it becomes clear that there is a need to integrate the theoretical approaches most used to study and investigate stereotypes from a perspective that is beyond the consideration of culture or the underlying cognitive processes alone.
Thinking of stereotypes solely as bias risks erasing the entire cultural aspect that differentiates stereotypes between different groups. At the same time, however, considering only the cultural approach risks leading to an underestimation of human cognitive functioning, which makes implicit stereotypes difficult to modify and eradicate. There is no doubt that cognitive processes play an important role in the persistence of stereotypes: it is this functioning that unites human beings and makes biases universal.
Integrating cognitive and cultural approaches may prove to be the best way to understand how their connection influences the establishment of stereotypes. The use of interdisciplinary perspectives that combine both cognitive science and social psychology makes it possible to explore the complexity in stereotype formation and change. Especially in a rapidly changing society such as the one in which we currently live, which sees the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning systems as tools that the general population increasingly turns to for advice or to solve problems, analysing, as numerous studies are already doing, the ways in which cognitive and cultural biases influence programming languages can be a first way of understanding not only the cultural stereotypes present in our culture but also ways of tracking and understanding stereotype dynamics in different cultures and social groups (Ahn et al., 2022; Craiut & Iancu, 2022). Integrating the study of psychology with computer science could allow the analysis of different perspectives, the creation and collection of new data that can capture a more accurate picture of the reality, including through longitudinal studies that analyse its evolution over the years.
A further important focus concerns the analysis of the cultural groups these studies address. Research to date has focused more on race, gender and sexual orientation, trying as much as possible to take an intersectional approach. However, the increasing focus on forms of discrimination within the general population, and not only within the scientific community, opens the door to an increasing need for integration and requires ever greater complexity for an effective understanding of the social context in which we live. These changes call for the scientific community to be ready to question its own biases but above all to seek new insights and new perspectives even within what is already known, highlighting results that are not significant or that go in different directions from those expected, to open new insights into the underlying reasons.
Ethics and consent
Ethical approval and consent were not required.
Citation diversity statement
Following the work from Zurn and colleagues (2020), to proactively consider choosing references that reflect the diversity of the field in thought, form of contribution, gender, race, ethnicity, and other factors, I used databases that store the probability of a first name being carried by a woman and the probability of a first and last name being carried by an author of colour. As per gender diversity, by this measure and excluding self-citations to the first and last authors of our current paper), this paper contains 24.07% woman(first)/woman(last), 11.11% man/woman, 14.81% woman/man, and 50.0% man/man. This method is limited in that a) names, pronouns, and social media profiles used to construct the databases may not, in every case, be indicative of gender identity and b) it cannot account for intersex, non-binary, or transgender people. As per ethnicity, by this measure (and excluding self-citations), this paper contains 5.15% author of colour (first)/author of colour(last), 13.28% white author/author of colour, 14.77% author of colour/white author, and 66.80% white author/white author. This method is limited in that a) names and Florida Voter Data to make the predictions may not be indicative of racial/ethnic identity, and b) it cannot account for Indigenous and mixed-race authors, or those who may face differential biases due to the ambiguous racialization or ethnicization of their names.
Data availability
No data associated with this article.
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